Philosophy Paper Parental Licensing Essays

Philosophy Paper Parental Licensing Essays Philosophy Paper Parental Licensing Essay Philosophy Paper Parental Licensing Essay May 6, 2013 Essay 3 Parental Licensing Congress is considering passing a law that would mandate parental licensing and two experts are testifying, philosophers, Lafayette and Frisks. I think Congress should listen to Leaflets defense testimony and enact parental licensing immediately. Lafayette argues parents should be required to obtain a license before they can raise a child. Though he says there are many hurdles in this claim but they can be addressed overtime. Part of Loftinesss core argument is that the state regulates lots of activities that are harmful to others, so why does the state not regulate parental sensing? For example, the state mandates people sixteen and over to have a drivers license if they want to drive an automobile in order to better protect society. Lafayette says, safe performance of the activity requires a certain competence(Licensing Parents, 390). A drivers license test regulates and requires a level of competence and if you pass you can legally drive a car. Similarly, Lafayette offers the same principle for a parenting test. Likewise, surgeons have medical tests and schooling to become a legal surgeon in order to keep patients safe. Lafayette also stands for this argument and feels it relates to licensing adults to prove their competence to be a good parent. The main goal is to protect children in his eyes, he states, each year more than half a million children are physically abused or neglected by their parents(391). If there is a parenting test in order to protect even a few children we should mandate it in order to lower that horrific statistic. Many people lack the knowledge they need to raise children or they lack the stability, energy or patience that is necessary in the child rearing process (392). Since we already remove children from abusive parents and homes to further prevent harm, he claims, why dont we require adults to prove that they are competent parents before they have children. Lafayette believes it is better to catch some bad parents than none like we catch some bad drivers than none with a licensing test. It is important for people to prove their competence before they engage in activities and a license or test fulfills that claim according to Lafayette. The only way to deny this conclusion is to deny the need for licensing any potentially harmful activity'(392), whether the regulation of drivers, doctors, or surgeons and without those regulations it breaks down a stable society. Addressing the issue of what happens when you fail the test is similar to the process of failing a drivers test though this issue can be addressed later on. If you are denied a drivers test you are given the opportunity to repeat the test to obtain your drivers license and thus if you fail the test you could to go counseling or therapy to improve your chances on passing the next test. The second part of Loftinesss core argument is his analogy with adoption; he claims that f we screen parents who want to adopt children we should screen biological parents as well. He states, the adoptive process is far more rigorous than the general licensing procedures I envision(398). In order to adopt a child you are tested many recognizes these demanding pre adoption procedures exclude some people who could be bad parents, which is a positive thing. Adoptive children are five times less likely to be abused than children reared by their biological parents(399). We screen adoptive parents because its better to deny some people the opportunity to adopt than freely allow anyone to adopt a child. Lafayette sees many parallels between his licensing program and the adoption program mainly, both programs have the same aim- protecting children(399). If we continue to regulate the adoption of children we should be compelled to establish a licensing program for any biological parent as well. Though, if you get pregnant without a license Lafayette wouldnt want to make abortions mandatory at all. He is against forced abortion, however, he would say the child would have to be taken from you until you pass the test in order to protect the child. You could be penalized for raising a child without a license that may be noninsured a crime, as if you drove a car without a drivers license. This program according to Lafayette does not demand that we license only the best parent; rather it is designed to exclude only the very bad ones (396). It is hard to test for good parents but easy to test for harmful ones, because they are defined as those who could abuse or neglect their children. Therefore there is enough criteria to make a licensing program for parents to successfully work in society. Though procedures for licensing drivers or surgeons are not a 100 percent accurate we embrace them anyway, so we should embrace the parental licensing program even though it is not 100 percent accurate as well. On the opposition side of the argument is philosopher Frisks who is against parental licensing. Frisks claims societies undertake licensing because there is reason to believe licensing will exert some control over specific risks. The risks fall into these categories according to Frisks, risks arising out of ignorance, risks arising through physical or mental incapacity, risks arising from willful misconduct, and risks arising through negligence or inability to exert self control over behavior(On Licentious Licensing, 348). Risk of ignorance and physical or mental disability are not factors for bad parenting, while risk of willful misconduct or lack of self control are factors for bad parenting according to Frisks. First, the ignorance risk says that you dont harm your kids and be a bad parent from ignorance, parents know that abusing your child is bad. A horrible doctor could harm patients with improper medicine but not because of ignorance, they know administering that particular medicine is bad. If you test based on ignorance in a parental licensing test there is no empirical reason to believe that making knowledge of parenting a prime retention for licensing would reduce the incidence of child abuse(348). Secondly, the physical or mental disability risk is not a factor in regards to parenting because if you cant walk that doesnt mean you cant be a caring and loving parent. For example, a deaf parent could care for an infant only if flashing lights were provided to alert the parent of the babys crying (349). In the case of the surgeon, if they cant see and lack adequate vision while performing surgery then the disability would be a factor for them in being a bad surgeon. We can test for this risk, however, it would not be a actor to prevent bad parenting. Thirdly, willful misconduct risk is a huge factor for bad parenting because it includes purposive violence to a child by the wrongdoer. Parents who like to be abusive exist; however, screening for them couldnt work on a violate those standards(349). Lastly, the self-control risk is a factor in bad parenting because if a parent gets frustrated really easily or if they are constantly under high stress they could potentially release that stress on their child. For example, they could shake their infant extremely hard out of a lack of self-control outbursts. Frisks says most cases of child abuse fall under this category and that it is difficult to image a testing situation that could duplicate that(349). The risks that are relevant cannot be tested for and the risks that are not relevant can be tested for on a parental licensing test. Frisks claims Loftinesss proposal wouldnt work on the grounds that he is confusing competence, testing drivers to see if they are fit to drive, with good Judgment, a quality that is indirectly in our present licensing procedures (351). Frisks says Lifestyles argument fails theoretically because he proposed sensing based on predictions of future abusive behavior from parents and that argument cannot hold in Frisks eyes. For example, what do we do if one parent passes the test and the other does not and should the licensing tests be repeated at different times? These questions and concerns about Loftinesss proposition are highlighted in Frisks response stating why licensing is not beneficial. The four risks provided by Frisks state the flaws in Loftinesss proposal for parental licensing. I agree with Lafayette on his position to enact parental licensing on the same reasons e presents. Though I find some of his arguments stronger than others especially the argument that if you are against parental licensing on the basis that it is not theoretically desirable or that there is no reliable procedure to implement this program, you also must deny the need to license any potentially harmful activity. I believe that the state regulates activities that are harmful to others and parenting should be one of those regulated activities since it is potentially harmful to children. Regulating drivers and surgeons protects the greater good therefore I agree with Lafayette saying administering a parental licensing test will protect the greater good by eliminating the bad parents in society. I would not want to live in a society where there were no regulation laws and anyone could drive a car or anyone off the street could perform surgery. Though I do understand that there will be unintentional mistakes with accepting this program and that would affect innocent individuals. However, there will always be mistakes in any licensing program, for example, the state could grant a license to a pharmacist who luckily passed the licensing test and hen could administer the wrong drugs to many patients. On the other side the state could not grant a drivers license to a single mother who needs to drive to work simply because she accidentally made a wrong turn during the drivers test. Although these mistakes do not add up to the importance of implementing the licensing program in my opinion because the greater good will benefit. I also support Lifestyles adoption argument because whether the child is yours biologically or through adoption I believe they should be equal in their testing for parental competence because the love for the child is equal in both cases. I feel Loftinesss strongest argument is his adoption argument and it is the argument I support the most as well. I believe since our screening on adoptive parents is so extensive and is non-existent for biological parents that the difference is concerning and needs to be equal. The parental licensing tests may also benefit society because if any adult takes the test they could qualified to raise a child. This in result protects a child from potentially being neglected or abused because the parents didnt realize they werent ready yet. In reply to my opinion there is a genetic objection that needs to be addressed. Lafayette supports a parental license test to determine the competence of an adult to be a good parent. Though if you support that claim you should support the idea of a genetic test to determine if the adult will pass on good genes to their child, therefore being a good parent genetically. Bad parents create the risk of harm, either mental or physical pain, on their children and parents can increase the likelihood of hurting your children by passing on genetic characteristics as well. Transmitting certain genetic traits, such as anxiety or depression, to your children can hurt them just as much as inflicting physical or mental on them. If you fail Loftinesss licensing test, you are deemed a bad parent, though with time you could change and retake the test and pass and be deemed a competent parent. However, you cannot test traits such as anxiety or depression on a written test therefore there would need to be a correlating genetic licensing test. Say an adult takes the genetic test and the results conclude that there is a fifty percent chance to pass genes of depression to your child, and then you are deemed inadequate to be a parent. In this case there is o ability to retake the test because your genes are permanent so if you fail the test you cannot be a biological parent. This genetic testing leads too slippery slope because if you are in favor of parental licensing for Loftinesss reasoning, how do you stop sterilization in the basis of genetic screening? Should the state then be able to mandate genetic screening? If you get advice from a doctor to not have a baby because a poor genetic trait could harm that child is different than the state forbidding you to reproduce. All human rights are also conditional, for example, the eight to religion is limited by the lack of a right to harm others and therefore the right to have kids is limited by not harming them. If we ban genetically bad people from reproducing in order to avoid harming children, we would loose diversity in the world, therefore leading to a snowball effect of negativity. Only the healthy and beneficial traits would thrive leaving us with a society of perfectly engineered people who all look the same and society would be defined by sterilization. Without uniqueness or differential genes in the world society will lack the necessary character it needs to thrive. Say you only can reproduce if you are athletic, intelligent and physically attractive because those traits that will benefit your child, then anyone else who doesnt have those traits will be eliminated since they cannot reproduce according to the genetic test. Therefore a genetic test in correlation to determine if you are a fit parent to raise a child is a destructive program for society. In response to the genetic objection, I believe that genetic licensing is not as bad as it seems and that if you dont make the claim to support genetic licensing that there will be something worse down the line to accept. Genetic licensing is not detrimental in my opinion because if you fail this genetic test you could still adopt a child because then you would not pass on your bad traits on to your child. If you want to raise a child there should be no difference in the love you give them if you adopt or biologically reproduce. Genetic testing is not as bad as it seems because say you have a disease such as downs syndrome and want to reproduce the odds of would not want to reproduce knowing I would pass my negative traits on to my biological child, therefore I would adopt so I could still raise a healthy child. Preventing and even eliminating these horrible diseases is something society can benefit from in my opinion. Sterilization may not be a bad thing since no one would have to suffer from cancer or be inflicted with continuous anxiety if these traits didnt exist in the world. I also agree with Lafayette on his adoption argument, therefore I support a written test and a genetic test for parental licensing for biological and adoptive parents. Genetic testing leads us to eugenics, even declaring who can reproduce and who cannot on the basis of their genes, and this slippery slope could potentially lead us to the issue of regulating adoption. It could say that since we dont want to test genetics in order to be a good parent then we cant have a written test and if we cant have a written test for biological parents we shouldnt test or screen for adoptive parents. Therefore I am more willing to embrace the argument for genetic testing because I support adoption regulation. According to Loftinesss principle harming children is wrong and a written licensing test to screen for parental competence can lower the odds of hurting children. I believe you cannot have a written test without screening with a genetic test because there are many active genes that can be harmful to children. I am not willing to accept letting anyone decide they want a child then go adopt one on the spot without any screening on their competence to raise the child. Either outcome is potentially harmful in my option but I am more willing to bite the bullet and accept the genetic testing bullet because not screening adoptive parents is even worse. I also support genetic testing on the grounds of Harriers yuck factor because with parental and genetic screening, genetic screening feels yucky or intrusive to us, though because something feels strange to us doesnt mean we shouldnt do it. Genetic testing is not as bad as it seems in my opinion. Lafayette and Frisks both raise convincing points in their arguments, however, I support Loftinesss claim on supporting parental licensing. There are millions of children in the world who suffer from parental violence or negligence and I believe there needs to be a test for adults to take before they can reproduce. It is contradictory to say that the state can regulate some activities that are harmful to others but not every activity that is harmful to others. Parental licensing is harmful to others so it should be regulated and congress should pass the law to enact it.

Oracle Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Oracle Corporation - Essay Example Furthermore, chances of improving my career and skills is high, because the company values and rewards hard work. This is through motivational policies that encourage an individual to embark on learning of new skills. Oracle Corporation mainly relies on the principles of information technology to develop softwares and hardwares. The company technological products operate under the brand name of Oracle. These softwares and hardwares are mainly referred as Oracle projects, financials, procurements, HRMS, etc. Oracle creates, markets, hosts and supports various middleware software, database, hardware systems, cloud infrastructure, and other related services all over the world. The company further provides hardware and software systems and other related services aimed at managing IT environments, and also deploying services in cloud software (Zheng and Zhang, 2014). Oracle also offers software’s for purposes of mobile computing, and middle ware as well as databases software that can help to manage business applications for small as well as large business organizations. Jones (2010) further explains that oracle provides software applications for talent management, human capital, financial management, and human relationship management. The company was founded by Larry Ellison in the year 1977, and he became the chairman of the board of directors from the year 1990, to the year 2004Another founder of the company is Bob Miner who is the architect of the oracle database. He was in charge of leading the production and design of this database from the year 1977, to the year 1992 (Jones, 2010). He later on became a member of the board of directors. Another founder is Ed Oates, and he retired from the company in the year 1996. The current chairman of the company is Jeff Henley, who took over in the year 2004, from Larry Ellison. Jeff played an instrumental

Increasing numbers of inmate in prisons Research Paper

Increasing numbers of inmate in prisons - Research Paper Example These factors include the increase of older population, the increase of crime and productivity of inmates in the United States. Increase of older population and its impacts Over the years, the population in the United States continues to increase due to high fertility rate, increase of live birth and some other factors such as geographical movement of the people. In 1995 the national population in the United States has grown by 13 million from 1990 (US Census Bureau, 2010). From 2000 to 2006, the US population increased by 6.39% but the overall population growth rate slowed down by 17% (Geo Midpoint, 2011). However, the entire national population in the United States does not shrink in number, rather it continues to grow. Its condition at present time is moving into an upward spiral while it becomes older in general. However, this trend started in 1980s. The population growth rate in 1980 was 10% and 13% in 1990 (US Census Bureau, 2010). In 2000, the US population was growing older w ith majority of them from fifteen down to fifty-four year old (US Census Bureau, 2010). This implies that the population in the US is getting older. However, a certain study shows that age structure is related to the prison population (Marvell and Moody, 1997). The age groups with high imprisonment rate are eighteen to twenty four, twenty five to thirty four, and thirty five to forty four. In 1980 to 1987, it was the groups with age twenty four to forty four that grew most rapidly (Walker, 1996). This probably explains the dramatic increase of prison system in the United States starting in 1980s. Considering that the population in the United States is getting older and the age of individuals with high imprisonment ranges from eighteen to forty four, the number of crimes is expected to move in an upward spiral. In general, the number of violence and crimes in the United States has a positive association with the increasing number of its older population. For instance, those people wh o committed crimes or violent behavior at the age of 18 may eventually repeat the same act in the following years of their life. For instance, it is found that re-victimization pattern is associated with imprisonment (Finkelhor et al., 2007). In fact, this study further shows that within family older siblings are most likely to stand as factor for both risk and decrease of re-victimization process. This further implies that age is associated with the increase of crime in the United States. In fact, it is not only in the United States, but in other countries that most of inmates have long criminal records (Tonry, 2004). This means that they have various records of imprisonment or being in prison due to crimes or violent behaviors they committed against the law. These people have committed the same or related crimes all over again due to alcohol and drug abuse (Tonry, 2004). In the United States, substance abuse and alcohol addiction are pervasive issues that the national government h as long been given with its wider focus and attention. The fact that these social problems have contributed to the increase of crimes, violent behavior of a person and other related accidents, the government is very eager to alleviate or eventually impede their negative impacts. However, there is another important issue that needs to be closely determined aside from finding for the right solution of these social problems. In the United States, adults and young adults are strongly linked to alcohol

Hospital Quality Improvement Essay Example for Free

Hospital Quality Improvement Essay Kausch and as a member of the quality improvement council. Corporate influences to assist in the hospital efforts consisted of providing staffing for QIP. The mentor was provided by headquarters staff, and in the case of WFRMC was Dr. Batalden (p. 525). The corporate headquarters also rovided a means for WFRMC to work with one of the other HCA hospitals to focus and develop self-assessment tools for department heads (McLaughlin Kaluzny, The impact of the programs that would be instilled in WFRMC can be 2006). measured through departmental quality improvement assessments. The scoring matrix of the self-assessment focused on approach, deployment (implementation), and effects ((McLaughlin Kaluzny, 2006). The approach includes the eight dimensions: leadership constancy, employee mindedness, customer mindedness, process focused, statistical thinking, PDCA driven, innovativeness, and regulatory proactiveness (p. 30). The implementation assessment was focused around the depth of deployment; the awareness, knowledge, understanding, and application of the plan (McLaughlin Kaluzny, 2006). The effects were assessed on the overall quality of measureable results. For example, CQI team for charting showed favorable results form quality improvement plans in that patient report availability was improved, and there were fewer phone calls [with regards to errors] (p. 537). Implementation programs. The obstetric department utilized a consultant to evaluate quality. The result of this was that it became clear that there was a demand for a system in hich a family-centered birth experience could occur (p. 541). This development ofa new family-centered system was based on the need to center its services on the customer preferences rather then a forced routine (McLaughlin Kaluzny, 2006). In order to implement a new system Ms. Cynthia Ayres, an administrative director, was assigned to implement this new concept. The result was that Ms. Ayres decided to use the CQI process to develop a new charge process and to evaluate the cost and resource consumption of the service (p. 541). In the evaluation all processes of a delivery were under analysis. Another tactical program that was supported with TQM was that of pharmacy. This was conducted as a result of the concern of the rapidly rising costs of inpatient drugs, especially antibiotics, which were costing the hospital about $1. 3 million per year (p. 543). A CQI team was formed and evaluated the process of how physicians selected antibiotics for treatment (McLaughlin Kaluzny, 2006). The end result of the CQI process was the recommendation that antibiotics be listed in order of increasing cost per average daily dose (McLaughlin Kaluzny, 2006)

Social Security Essays -- essays research papers

Title of Paper : Social Security Social security, created in 1935, is the most costly item in the federal budget. The program provides old age, survivors’ and disability insurance to a healthy portion of Americans. Workers and their employers fund the system by each paying payroll taxes. The Internal Revenue Service collects the taxes and deposits the money in government-administrated accounts known as the Old Age and Survivors and Disability Insurance Trust Funds(OASDI). The payroll tax revenues are used to pay benefits to those people currently collecting Social Security pensions. Social Security taxes also pay for Medicare, the national health program for the elderly. The huge problem with the current situation facing Social Security is the increasing deduction of workers in the work force paying for workers retired. â€Å"Due to the large number of aging baby boomers, American 65 and older are the fastest-growing segment of the population. The population growth of Americans age 65 and older is 112% in the years between 1995 and 2040. The population growth in age 20-64 is 24%. The population growth in ages under 20, is 5%.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What these numbers essentially represent is a cause problem with age differences in the future. Soon, less workers will be in the job force trying to supply more retirees with Social Security. Currently, many ideas have been juggled around trying to find a sound and reasonable way to resolve this problem. Granted, the problem will not happen overnight, but rather over a long arduous duration of time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question first arises, â€Å"Can the existing system survive without major reforms?† The early designers of Social Security and many Democrats are baffled at the recent proposals to change Social Security. Most believe that Social Security is still able to provide a safety net for retirees and their survivors if minor adjustments are made. â€Å"Occasionally raising payroll taxes or recalculating the way benefits are paid out.† Some Democrats look at major reform as a way of pitting war between generations. They stand on common beliefs that Social Security has worked for over 60 years by providing a steady stream of monthly payments that beneficiaries can rely on. Also, it has helped lift millions of seniors out of poverty. Democrats also criticize the Grand Old Party for â€Å"playing†... ...vatization of personal savings would be advantageous to the nation’s economy, delivering bigger pensions to workers and helping the economy grow faster. Some believe the emphasis on personal savings would give the added feature of encouraging more individual responsibility at a time when the nation prepares for a surge in its elderly population. Privatization would differ from Social Security in two important ways. First, the amount a worker receives at retirement depends solely on how much one contributes to savings and how well the investments perform. In simplified notation, those who set aside more and invest wisely enjoy more comfortable retirements. Secondly, pensions are paid out of an individual’s accumulated savings instead of financed by taxes on active workers. For example, Chile for a little less than two decades has replaced it’s system which was much like Social Security with a system incorporated around the idea of privately invested accounts. The results are astounding. The plan is relatively elementary because it focuses on workers placing 10 percent of their monthly income into a savings account. With this, government leaders boosted the national savings rate Social Security Essays -- essays research papers Title of Paper : Social Security Social security, created in 1935, is the most costly item in the federal budget. The program provides old age, survivors’ and disability insurance to a healthy portion of Americans. Workers and their employers fund the system by each paying payroll taxes. The Internal Revenue Service collects the taxes and deposits the money in government-administrated accounts known as the Old Age and Survivors and Disability Insurance Trust Funds(OASDI). The payroll tax revenues are used to pay benefits to those people currently collecting Social Security pensions. Social Security taxes also pay for Medicare, the national health program for the elderly. The huge problem with the current situation facing Social Security is the increasing deduction of workers in the work force paying for workers retired. â€Å"Due to the large number of aging baby boomers, American 65 and older are the fastest-growing segment of the population. The population growth of Americans age 65 and older is 112% in the years between 1995 and 2040. The population growth in age 20-64 is 24%. The population growth in ages under 20, is 5%.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What these numbers essentially represent is a cause problem with age differences in the future. Soon, less workers will be in the job force trying to supply more retirees with Social Security. Currently, many ideas have been juggled around trying to find a sound and reasonable way to resolve this problem. Granted, the problem will not happen overnight, but rather over a long arduous duration of time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The question first arises, â€Å"Can the existing system survive without major reforms?† The early designers of Social Security and many Democrats are baffled at the recent proposals to change Social Security. Most believe that Social Security is still able to provide a safety net for retirees and their survivors if minor adjustments are made. â€Å"Occasionally raising payroll taxes or recalculating the way benefits are paid out.† Some Democrats look at major reform as a way of pitting war between generations. They stand on common beliefs that Social Security has worked for over 60 years by providing a steady stream of monthly payments that beneficiaries can rely on. Also, it has helped lift millions of seniors out of poverty. Democrats also criticize the Grand Old Party for â€Å"playing†... ...vatization of personal savings would be advantageous to the nation’s economy, delivering bigger pensions to workers and helping the economy grow faster. Some believe the emphasis on personal savings would give the added feature of encouraging more individual responsibility at a time when the nation prepares for a surge in its elderly population. Privatization would differ from Social Security in two important ways. First, the amount a worker receives at retirement depends solely on how much one contributes to savings and how well the investments perform. In simplified notation, those who set aside more and invest wisely enjoy more comfortable retirements. Secondly, pensions are paid out of an individual’s accumulated savings instead of financed by taxes on active workers. For example, Chile for a little less than two decades has replaced it’s system which was much like Social Security with a system incorporated around the idea of privately invested accounts. The results are astounding. The plan is relatively elementary because it focuses on workers placing 10 percent of their monthly income into a savings account. With this, government leaders boosted the national savings rate

The Market for Chocolate Cookies Is Comprised of Two Types

(a) As the question says the market for chocolate cookies is competitive thus, this complies with the market structure of Perfect Competition where there are a large number of buyers and sellers in the market. The basic characteristics of a Perfect Competition Market structure are that there is perfect knowledge on both sides of the market that is buyers and sellers know what the current market price is and thus, it prevents exploitation of the consumers as producers would not be able to charge unfair prices.This is because each firm produces an insignificant fraction of the total market supply and therefore is unable to affect price, it is for this reason that each firm in perfect competition is known as a price taker. There are no barriers to entry or exit in a perfectly competitive industry and thus, producers can enter or exit the market without any restrictions and thus, without any significant losses. The intersection of demand and supply curves of the industry determines the e quilibrium price a typical producer can charge which also become the demand of the firm.Due to this, the producers cannot exploit the consumers by charging a high price and thus, the price is always at the equilibrium. This is because if the producers charge a higher price, the demand for the product becomes zero, because the consumers can always switch to another producer as the good is homogenous. (Anderton, 2000) Since the Firms in Perfect Competition are Price takers so they both take the current market price, ‘Pe’ as shown in the Graph where the Market Demand and Supply intersects and form the Market equilibrium.D0 can be assumed as the Total Demand of Chocolate Cookies in the market and S0 can be assumed as the Total Supply of the Chocolate Cookies in the Market. Not for profit Organisations’ (NPOs) Average Cost (ATCn) is higher than the Average Cost of Profit Making Organisations, that is ATCp, because Not for profit organisations’ (NPOs) employ dis abled people and their cost is also high because Profit Making Organisation are making use of Capital Intensive technologies thus, more of their production is automated and they employ fewer workers than the NPOs.Average Cost of the Profit Making Firms (ATCp) is equal to the market Price (Pe) so they are making a â€Å"Normal Profit† just because of higher productivity due to which their cost is reduced. A firm makes a Normal Profit when its total Economic Cost, which is Average Cost in other words, is equal to the price firm is charging. In other words it can be said that the firm is making zero economic profit. A firm makes a supernormal profit when its Average Cost (economic cost) is lower than the price it is charging. The NPOs initially in the Short run are making a loss since their Average Cost (ATCn) is greater than the price (Pe) charged.A profit making firm may also make a supernormal profit but in the short run only, in the long run it can only make a normal profit or a zero economic profit. NPOs will be following a cost minimizing price, marginal cost price. (b)(i) A lump sum tax is a fixed amount that is charged as tax irrespective of a business’s profit, sales revenue or capital. According to Mankiw (2009), A lump sum tax is the most efficient tax possible because the business’s decisions do not alter the tax owed, the tax does not causes any dead weight losses and does not distort any incentives.Since, there is a fixed amount payable as tax so there is no administrative expense of hiring tax lawyers and accountants. Short run is the time period when at least one inputs in the production process is fixed and the rest are variable. Usually in the short run, the variable input is labour and the fixed input is capital. In the short run, it is assumed that producers can only alter production by changing the variable inputs rather than any fixed inputs. In the short run, existing firms do not exit the market.When the government imp oses a lump sum tax on the profit making corporations in a perfect competition, it disturbs the market structure of Perfect competition. It challenges the basic theory of Perfect Competition which says no barriers to entry and exit to and from the market. There is no government intervention usually in a perfectly competitive industry since it changes the basic characteristics of the Market Structure. However, after the government decides to impose a tax on the profit making firms only then the Market Structure of the Chocolate Cookies Industry does not remains a ure perfect competition, the Industry has close characteristics with Perfect Competition but cannot be categorised under it just because of the tax imposed. In the short run, the lump-sum tax must only affect the Average cost of the Profit Making firms while all other costs and revenue must be constant if all other factors affecting costs/revenue remain constant. Hence, as shown in the Graph above, The Average cost (ATCp0) o f a Profit making firm will increase depending on the amount of tax imposed by the government.In the graph above, the amount of tax has been assumed to be ATCp1-Pe which shows that the firm is making a loss after the ATCp0 shifts to ATCp1. If the market price is less than the Average Variable cost of the profit making firm, that is the firm is operating below its shut down point (Price = Average Variable Cost) then the firm will have to shut down production in the short run until there is a decrease in its average variable cost or an increase in the market price.But if in case, the market price is greater than Average variable cost but lesser than Average total Cost then the firm must continue production in the short run since it is covering its variable costs for now. (Mankiw, 2007) (ii) Long run is a time period when all the factors/inputs involved in the production process are variable. There are no fixed factors in the long run. In the long run firms can exit and enter the marke t freely.The long run is primarily used to analyze production decisions for a firm and is also used to better understand economies of scale, diseconomies of scale, and long-run market supply. In the long run, there must be a lot of changes in the industry and must also affect the firms in many ways. Like most of the Profit making firms which will be operating below the Shut down point (Price < Average Variable Cost) must not have been able to survive and must have exit the market.That must only shrink the market supply of Chocolate cookies, if all other factors affecting supply remain constant. The shrinking of supply will shift the Market Supply Curve (S0) to the left to the new Market Supply curve (S1) which must lead to an increase in the equilibrium market price of the industry to Pe1. The new market price will result in NPOs making a supernormal, normal profit or at least covering more of its loss in the short run but making a normal profit in the long run, depending on the num ber of exits from the market which should influence the change in market price.The graph below shows NPOs making a supernormal profit (Pe1-ATCn). It shows the Profit making firms also making a normal profit (Pe1 = ATCp1). Again, depending on the number of exits from the market and average costs of the firms, the profit of both the firms must vary. Since the NPOs now can make a Supernormal or at least a normal profit in the long run and will also get donations additionally so they must benefit their workers with all that extra profits earned.Their Disabled workers must earn much more than they were earning before in the short run and before the lump sum tax by the government was imposed. The NPOs may also employ additional workers after earning extra profits. The workers of the Profit making corporation might be worse off in the short run and some workers which will be working in the firms which had to shut down due to higher Average Variable cost than the market price will be fired while others in the long run will be better off comparatively.It will be unfair for the Profit making firms in a way that they produce better quality cookies as compare to NPOs but still NPOs are better off than the Profit Making Organisations in the long run. The consumers of the industry will be worse off in the long run, since they will have to pay a higher price just due to the lump sum tax imposed by the Government to make the NPOs better off in the long run.The tax burden of the Profit making organisations will be totally passed on to the consumers in the long run since they will have to pay the whole tax burden on the producers in the form of price. Word Count: 1531 words without referencing References: Heyne, P. , P. J. Boettke and D. L. Prychitko (2009). Economic Way of Thinking (9th Edition). Mankiw, N. G. (2009). Principles of Economics (5th Edition). Parkin, M. (2007). Economics (8th Edition).

How to Offer Things in English as a Second Language

Offering things in English is essential whenever you want to be polite, have guests at your home, or even organize a work event. The phrases below cover both how to offer various items to your guests, as well as how to accept offers graciously. Learn to use these phrases so that you can offer and accept things graciously and in a socially appropriate manner. Offering Phrases Its common to use phrases such as would you like and modal forms such as Can I or May I  to offer something. Here are some of the most important phrases used to offer something: Can I get you some...?Would you like some...?May I offer you some...?Would you like me to get you some...? Some mini-dialogues containing these asking phrases might be: Bob: Can I get you something to drink?Mary: Yes, that would be nice. Thank you.Jack: May I offer you some tea?Doug: Thank you.Alex: Would you like some lemonade?Susan: That would be nice. Thanks for offering. Always use some words when offering someone something. Informal Use these phrases when offering something in an everyday situation: How about some...?What about some...?What do you say about some...?Are you up for some...? Mini-dialogues  containing offering phrases in informal situations would be: Dan: What about something to drink?Helga: Sure, do you have any scotch?Judy: Are you up for some dinner?Zina: Hey, thanks. Whats on the menu?Keith: What do you say about going bowling?Bob:  That sounds like a good idea! Accepting Offers Accepting offers is just as important, or even more important, than offering things. Make sure to thank your host. If you dont want to accept an offer, politely refuse. Offering an excuse is also a good idea in order not to offend your host. The following phrases are commonly used when accepting offers: Thank you.Id love to.Id love some.That would be nice.Thank you. Id like... Some examples of accepting phrases include: Frank: May I get you something to drink?Kevin: Thank you. Id like a cup of coffee.Linda: Would you like me to get you some food?Evan: That would be nice. Thank you.Homer: May I offer you something to drink?Bart: Thank you. Id like a soda. Politely Refusing Offers Sometimes its necessary to politely refuse an offer even if its a kind one. In such cases, use these phrases to politely refuse offers. Provide a reason why you want to refuse an offer rather than just saying no.   Thank you, but...Thats very kind. Unfortunately, I...Id like to, but... Examples of using polite refusals in dialogue include: Jane: Would you like some cookies?David: Thank you, but Im on a diet.Allison: How about a cup of tea?Pat: Id like to have a cup of tea. Unfortunately, Im late for a meeting. Can I take a rain check?Avram: How about some wine?Tom: No thank you. Im watching my weight.